1. Fossil Fuels

2. Non-fuel Minerals:

(a) Metallic

(b) Nonmetallic

1. Coal

Derived from plant material on land

2. Oil

Derived from marine plants and animals

3. Natural Gas

Same origin as oil

1. About 80% of the total fossil fuel reserves on this planet will have been exhausted in just a few generations of human history.

2. At present, short-term oil gluts caused by market forces occasionally occur.

3. Oil shortages may also be caused politically (e.g. 1970’s).

4. In the United States, crude oil production peaked in 1971 and natural gas production peaked in 1976.

5. At present, the U.S. imports more that half its needed petroleum.

6. World oil production will peak during the early part of the 21st century and afterwards start to decline.

7. This decline will occur as world energy demand continues to increase.

8. The world may run out of oil sometime during the 21st century.

1. Sandstone, limestone or clay containing water and heavy crude oil

2. Largest deposits occur in Alberta, Canada

3. Requires extensive surface mining

4. Oil extracted using heat and pressurized steam at processing facilities

1. Estimated to contain up to 300 billion barrels of oil

2. Yields up to 38 liters (10 gallons) oil per ton shale

3. Half of world’s supply resides in 36 m.y. — 57 m.y. old lake deposits in western U.S.

4. Requires extensive surface mining and water for processing

5. Presently not economical

6. May be in the future

1. Urban Air Pollution

(a) Primary pollutants emitted directly from sources

(b) Secondary pollutants formed from chemical reactions among primary pollutants

2. Global Warming

(a) Carbon dioxide

(b) Greenhouse effect

1. Important greenhouse gases include:

(a) Water Vapor

(b) Carbon Dioxide

(c) Methane

(d) Nitrous Oxide

(e) Ozone

(f) Chlorofluorocarbons

2. Carbon dioxide accounts for 60% of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect.

1, Volcanism

2. Weathering and erosion

3. Respiration

4. Burning of fossil fuels

1. Changes in the hydrologic cycle.

2. Increased evaporation of oceans, lakes and streams may lead to greater precipitation.

3. Equatorial regions may receive more rainfall.

4. Interior portions of large continents may become warmer and drier.

5. Shifts in forest boundaries.

6. Increase in tropical storm activity.

7. Melting of low- and middle latitude mountain glaciers.

8. Melting of sea ice.

9. Thawing of frozen ground at high latitudes.

10. Rise of sea level.

1. Nuclear Energy

2. Solar Energy

3. Wind Energy (windmills)

4. Hydroelectric Power (dams)

5. Geothermal Energy

6. Tidal Power

1. There are presently over 6 billion people on Earth.

2. It took humankind:

(a) 500,000 years to reach the first billion

(b) 80 years for the second billion

(c) 30 years for the third billion

(d) 15 years for the fourth billion

(e) 11 years for the fifth billion

3. Most environmentalists doubt that the Earth will be able to support the 10 billion people expected by the year 2025.

1. The exploding population is the main factor behind:

(a) increased poverty in less developed countries

(b) rapid deforestation of tropical rainforests

(c) exponential growth in consumption of resources

(d) exponential growth in the production of waste and pollutants

1. Magmatic Segregation (chromium, nickel, platinum)

2. Pegmatites (precious gems, lithium, REE etc.)

3. Hydrothermal Solutions (gold, lead, zinc, silver, mercury)

4. Contact Metamorphism (zinc, lead, copper, tungsten)

5. Regional Metamorphism (talc, graphite)

6. Kimberlite Pipes (diamonds)

7. Evaporite Deposits (salts)

8. Other Sedimentary Deposits (phosphorus, sulfur)

1. Percolating water can concentrate elements (e.g. Al) by removing undesirable materials. Example is Bauxite.

2. Percolating water can transport desirable elements in solution and eventually precipitate them at another location (copper and silver).

3. Heavy minerals can be segregated (sorted) by currents and concentrated to form Placer Deposits (gold, platinum, diamonds and tin).

1. Future shortages in some minerals will occur.

2. For many mineral resources, supply currently exceeds demand by a wide margin.

3. Ore that is too low-grade to be considered worthwhile today may become workable in the future as recovery techniques improve.

4. Eventually, however, a lower limit to ore grade will be reached.

5. Consumption of metals in the U.S. is increasing at about double the rate of population growth.

6. North America, with only 7% of the world population, consumes nearly 30% of the raw materials.

7. Over recent decades, consumption has exceeded domestic production of 18 major minerals in the United States.

8. Although recycling will become increasingly important, many minerals cannot be recycled.